The Armenian Highlands lie within the vast Alpine-Himalayan mountain belt, which stretches from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indian subcontinent. Millions of years ago, in the place of the present-day Alpine-Himalayan system, there existed a geosynclinal depression, known as the Tethys Ocean. The Armenian Highlands were formed approximately 25–30 million years ago due to the Alpine orogenic processes occurring in the region. As the sea gradually receded, the rising geosyncline transformed into mountainous land, and the geological layers were later disrupted and fragmented, creating folded and faulted mountains. This entire process was accompanied by intense volcanic eruptions.
During the Quaternary period, around 2 million years ago, the Armenian Highlands were characterized by active tectonic movements, increased seismic activity, and lava extrusions. This period is also known for the formation of lava-dammed lakes, significant climate fluctuations, and glaciation phenomena, as well as the restructuring of river networks. Today, differential uplift and subsidence of crustal blocks continue: for example, the Aragats and Geghama mountains rise by several millimeters annually, while the Ararat and Shirak plains and the bottom of Lake Sevan gradually subside.
The Armenian Highlands, as part of the Alpine-Himalayan zone, belong to a seismically active region, where earthquake magnitudes can reach up to 11 on the 12-point scale. Notable recent strong earthquakes include Spitak (1988), Erzincan (March 1992), and Ayntap (February 2023).
Orogenic processes have shaped the current complex landscape of the Armenian Highlands, consisting of the central plateau known as the Armenian Upland and the surrounding mountain ranges. In the highland, the crust reaches a thickness of up to 50 km, though in some areas, particularly in the central plateau, it is thinner and rests on a layer of partially molten magma, where highly complex geological processes occur.
Volcanism is highly pronounced here, expressed in both extrusive and intrusive forms. The spread of lava has created volcanic plateaus and massifs, occupying a significant part of the Armenian Highlands.
Among the important volcanic landforms are extrusive cones and non-caldera volcanoes, which are composed primarily of acidic lava. Viscous lava did not flow but accumulated at the volcanic vent, building steep-sided volcanic cones. This process formed peaks such as Spitakasar, Geghasar, Vardenis, Greater Ishkhanasar, Abul-Samsar, Karmir Porak, Mount Masis, and the Greater and Lesser Ararat peaks.
Caldera-type volcanoes are also widespread, mostly composed of pyroclastic materials and associated with violent eruptions. Except for Tondrak, most caldera volcanoes are extinct. After volcanic activity ceased, the calderas were preserved in their original form. Some caldera cones contain crater lakes, such as Nemrut and Azhdahak in the Geghama mountains, and Armaghan on the southwestern shores of Lake Sevan.
Since ancient times, the intermountain valleys of the Armenian Highlands have been well-known regions for agricultural development and human settlement.
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