The territory of the Republic of Armenia is located within the internal zone of the Anatolia–Caucasus–Iran segment of the Alp-Himalayan (Mediterranean) fold belt, encompassing the folded mountain ranges of the Lesser Caucasus and the northeastern part of the Armenian volcanic plateau. It lies between the African-Arabian and Eurasian tectonic plates, which were once separated by the Tethys Ocean.
Within Armenia, the following zones of intermontane depressions and folds are distinguished: the Virahayots–Karabakh Alpine, the Bazum–Zangezur Mid-Alpine, the Inter-Araks Mid-Alpine, and the Ushalpian stages.
From a geological perspective, the Armenian Highland is one of the most distinctive regions on the continent. It features formations from virtually all geological periods, ranging from the ancient Precambrian metamorphic complexes to Quaternary volcanic rocks and lacustrine-fluvial deposits.
Precambrian metamorphic rocks are exposed in the cores of the Tsaghkuniats and Tavush domal folds. Upper Paleozoic rocks are most widespread in the Yerevan–Vedi submassif, the Inter-Araks tectonic zone, and the southwestern part of Zangezur, where they are represented by sandstones, quartz sandstones, clays, sand-clay and sandy shales, limestones, often containing fossil remains. Permian limestones lie unconformably on top of Upper Devonian and Lower Carboniferous rocks. In the Vedi River basin, Triassic coal deposits are present.
Mesozoic formations (Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous) occur in the cores of the Alaverdi, Tavush, and Kapan domal folds, represented by sedimentary, volcanosedimentary, and volcanic rocks containing fossil remains. Jurassic sediments in Ijevan include coal-bearing layers. Triassic deposits are found in the Yerevan–Ordubad subzone, mainly as limestones, with some coal-bearing sequences. Upper Cretaceous deposits are widespread in the Alaverdi, Kapan, and Bazum–Zangezur Inter-Araks zones, represented by carbonate, volcanosedimentary, and volcanic rocks containing fossils. During the Upper Cretaceous, the region experienced its greatest marine transgression, covering the entire territory of present-day Armenia with seawater.
Cenozoic formations are concentrated primarily in the central part of the republic (Bazum–Zangezur tectonic zone). Paleogene rocks are represented throughout all stratigraphic levels, composed of volcanosedimentary, carbonate, and flysch sequences. Neogene formations include Miocene and Pliocene subdivisions. The early, middle, and late Miocene is characterized by mainly marine, lagoonal, and continental molasse deposits, occurring in certain areas of the Greater Yerevan region as sandstones, partly limestones, clays (often gypsum-bearing), and volcanic-clastic layers. Pliocene formations are most widespread in the interfluve of the Hrazdan and Azat rivers, and in the mountain ranges of Vardenis, Geghama, Zangezur, Tsaghkuniats, Pambak, and Shirak.
In the Late Pliocene, intense tectonic movements were accompanied by active volcanism. Volcanic rocks of this age are widely distributed in the Javakhk, Lori, and Ashotk plateaus, as well as in the volcanic massifs of Aragats and Ishkhanasar, a significant part of the Geghama plateau, and the Karmrashen, Shamiram, and Yegvard uplands.
Starting from the Pliocene, the region entered a continental phase of geological development, and the sea receded completely. Lower and Upper Pliocene formations are represented by lacustrine, terrestrial, and various volcanic-clastic facies. During the Pleistocene (including Late Pliocene) and Holocene, Armenia was a region of intense volcanic activity, which shaped its modern relief.
Volcanic deposits cover approximately one-third of the republic’s territory. Armenia is a land of intrusive magmatism. Recent formations also include glacial, riverine, lacustrine, debris-flow, and terrace deposits.
Throughout the republic, especially as a result of young Pliocene–Quaternary volcanic activity, extensive lava flows, volcanic cones, pyroclastic deposits, ignimbrites, and breccias of doleritic, basaltic, basalt-andesite-rhyolite, and other compositions are widespread. These formations, due to their genetic and structural-morphological characteristics, define the Javakhk, Yeghnakhagh, Aragats, Geghama, Vardenis, and Kanaker–Yegvard volcanic regions.
Earthquakes and Landslides
Armenia lies in a tectonically active region and is part of the Alp-Himalayan seismic belt. The most prominent seismically active clusters are:
Ararat cluster: Dvin (893), Garni (1679), Ararat (1840), Gyumri (1926), Zangezur (1931, 1968), Vayots Dzor (735, 906)
Sevan–Hrazdan cluster: Tsaghkadzor (1827), Tsovagyugh (1863), Spitak–Vanadzor (1916, 1967, 1988)
The most powerful and destructive event was the Spitak earthquake on December 7, 1988.
Armenia has over 3,000 landslide sites of varying sizes, covering roughly 65,000 hectares. Villages and towns in active landslide zones include Voghjaberd, Haghartsin, Gnishik, Gosh, Odzun, Dilijan, and Kapan, among others. Landslides are most common in the watersheds of the Debed, Hrazdan, Vorotan, Voghchi, Aghstev, Azat, and Arpa rivers.
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